The Fall of the Age of Enlightenment
The rise of Religious Pluralism can be directly related to the collapse of the Age of Enlightenment (1685) to (1815) where the idea of universal knowledge took precedence over religious ideals. Often, there was a crude attempt to divert attention from the collapse of the Enlightenment vision by implying that religious pluralism represented a new and unanswerable challenge to Christianity. Pluralism was a kind of reaction to the intensification of the Enlightenment. Alternatively, it was an intensification of Enlightenment individualism. Conversely, Enlightenment thinkers said every individual by virtue of his or her reason is autonomous, a law unto themselves. Accordingly, the goal of society is to respect the autonomy of every person. [1] Pluralism argued that reason is not universal like Enlightenment thinkers thought. It was not rooted in nature, but was very much cultured. Reason would not supply universal axioms to which everyone assented. Pluralism recognized the autonomy of the individual but also the plurality of reason. [2] What had united Enlightenment thinkers was commitment to the criticism of all areas of life, primarily religion. They felt everything must be examined and debated, investigated and without question, regardless of anyone’s feelings.
It almost seemed that the Age of Enlightenment should have been the Age of Criticism. Because the role of reason was central to the attack on Orthodox Christianity, (that it was irrational), one must at all costs be skeptical about anything that could not be proven with reason. While Enlightenment philosophers criticized traditional establishments like the church and urged people to think for themselves, evangelicals preached to people outside the church. They criticized traditional clergy, and urged people to have a conversion experience for themselves.
Evangelical Revivalism vs. Enlightenment Reasoning
A key word resonated in the minds of its European citizens. “Exploration” into global locales such as geography, economy, weather and culture. In fact, the philosophers hoped to liberate the program of enlightened thinking all over the world. [3] While the Enlightenment valued logic and reason, Evangelical revivalism was used to support and denounce slavery. They were both very different but influenced the early American people
and the American Revolution. They are responsible for framing our thinking today. The Enlightenment can still be seen as a continuation of the Renaissance which had a strong scientific emphasis on reason and advancement. The Evangelicals saw themselves as a core group of people recovering a core doctrine of the Gospel, especially the Justification by faith alone and a conversion to Christ. [4]
Enlightenment Rationalism
The Declaration of Independence came out of the era of Enlightenment. With Paris at the center of the Enlightenment, its brand of philosophy existed all over Europe and within outposts of the American colonies. The concept of a divine right to rule over another was completely rejected. Rather, the belief was that power was bestowed upon by the people to their own chosen ruler. This traditional political model where monarchs thought they had a right of rule was turned completely upside down. The power was placed back into the hands of the people with the idea that there should be a representative government.
Although representative government was an off-shoot of liberalism, John Locke explored what he believed every man had a right to. He believed every man had a right to estate, life and liberty.
John Locke was responsible for drafting the first written constitution for America, beginning with Carolina. “If the Enlightenment didn’t exist, postmodernists would have had to invent it.” [5]
A century later, these rights were transformed into Thomas Jefferson’s Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness where the Declaration of Independence was formed as a protection against the denial of life, liberty and property without due process of law (in the Constitution’s 5th Amendment).
Men like John Locke believed this declaration of an individual’s independence could be seen as protection from government that would deny a man their natural rights. Ironically, Locke was a shareholder in the slave-trading company. There were other radicals who published important works and letters on the importance of equality.
Thomas Jefferson and John Locke focused politically on the representation of the white middle-class. Enlightenment critics saw this kind of political thinking as self-serving justification for hegemony with white males. However, these ideas would be the fuel that contained seeds for a universal revolution. With the Republican agenda exposed, and the genie out of the bottle, white males began to find it difficult to explain why they should have power over others. With the new philosophies’ standards of equality, they couldn’t find a good reason. Enlightenment thinkers in the political arena were concerned with balance. One that would reflect the country’s constitution with emphasis on checks and balances in the three main branches of government. For Enlightenment thinkers, politics and science were instruments to help make the world a better place. Philosophies had undying faith in growth and development.
The Role of Deism
The practicing religion for the Enlightenment thinkers was Deism. Some were atheists while others were Christian philosophers. The Deists were religious but disagreed on predestination in that they did not believe everything important was already known or that God always directly intervened in the affairs of the world. They rejected Spiritual Revelation entirely and the sovereign father figure of Christianity for a more impersonal, universal force that created the universe. Nature became the revelation and not scripture. Science paved the way to divinity. Although Deists didn’t believe in scriptural revelation, they tapped into a form of Christianity that went back to the time of St. Augustine. Some natural theologians such as Darwin believed in science and rationality mixed with a dash of
mysticism--gave future hope for progress to the Deists. Isaac Newton was a Biblical scholar but also had an interest in the occult. John Locke and Newton believed in witchcraft. Newton was responsible for the theory of gravity, explaining the earth’s orbit and invented the reflecting telescope. He was also responsible for the laws of motion and mechanics in physics, and also known for the developments in momentum and energy. He invented prisms that dispelled light to show the color of rainbows. This work was common place for how 17th and 18th century scientists captured nature’s order, just like the Bible showed a pathway to Christianity.
Other Influences
Quakers were influential in American History. They owned slaves well into the 18th century until they began to spearhead the abolitionist movement. They also emphasized egalitarianism and equality for women. They didn’t believe in addressing people with lofty titles, rather everyone regardless of their rank or social status was referred to as Mr. or Mrs. Benjamin Franklin was significant to the Enlightenment movement because he captured the true light of the Renaissance man. He was a printer but had multiple other interests and strong curiosity. He didn’t believe lightning was a manifestation of God’s anger, rather his theory proved true that it was
caused by electricity. He invented the lightning rod to help control its destructive energy. Franklin was the inventor of bifocals, a glass harmonica and the Franklin stove, the U.S. post office, and daylight savings. He was a researcher and always came up with new medical ideas. Franklin helped create Philadelphia into a true city which was America’s first. Other cities were modeled after Philadelphia and the grid system. It had a hospital, numbers on the streets, fire department, libraries, and the colonies’ first volunteer fire department in 1736.
Franklin, along with other founders such as Thomas Jefferson and George Washington was a Deist. The Revolution gave the founders a chance to establish representative government from scratch. Along with the endorsement of science and technology, and Republicanism, the Enlightenment lives on in our country. America was born at the height of the Enlightenment. Jefferson thought that religion surrounding orthodoxy would give way to Deism. As a result, people of all faiths now live together in a technologically driven society that is driven by the scientific method.
Although Deists did not establish a formal church, their beliefs led them to form a fraternal order that emphasized Enlightenment thinking. This led to the development of the Freemasons. The Freemasons could be traced back to the stonemason guilds. The symbol of the square and compass were representative of God whom they believed to be the Grand Architect of the Universe. Many faiths were incorporated into the fraternity including Christianity and others who believed in monotheism and community service.
George Washington and Benjamin Franklin as well as other prominent scientists, theologians, entertainers and politicians were Masons. They have been thought of as suspicious because they are sworn to secrecy behind closed doors. To celebrate the Union’s victory in the Civil War, the Statue of Liberty and the Washington Monument were given as a gift from the French Masons to the American Masons.
Evangelical Rationalism
Although there were some Enlightenment philosophers in the Masonic lodges, they were disproportionately represented. The Enlightenment philosophies and politics had built the Constitution, but few Americans were interested in the Enlightenment religion. Religious indifference was common amongst farmers, slaves, and shopkeepers. The belief in universal religious tolerance wasn’t held by many individuals [4] and Christianity began to experience its own revolution. This became known as the Great Awakening. The first wave of the Great Awakening took place during the early 1700s and then again in the later 1700s and early to mid-1800s. The first Awakening took place in New England and the second Awakening took place in tent revivals where missionaries all over America began to launch new denominations.
Many preachers found the doctrine of predestination focus on Calvinism and the “Old Light” sermons falling on passive audiences. The stuffiness and complicated sermons were not being well received. The New England settlers and the rest of the country were struggling to even read. Calvin’s commentaries were too tedious and copious to grasp. Puritanism seemed too exclusive. If it wasn’t possible to prove to others you were amongst the elect, what was the purpose? Protestantism was in desperate need of an overhaul after the Puritans had served their purpose. Jonathan Edwards was somewhere in the middle of an older version of Calvinism and more emotional preaching. Edwards appealed to the masses but was also an intellectual who embraced Enlightenment science. One of Edwards favorite scriptures came from Isaiah 51:8 “…My righteousness shall be forever….my salvation from generation to generation.” [5] He wrote many books and wrote sermons that are still being read at divinity schools today. He was considered the most intellectual theologian in America.
George Whitefield was very popular and had a dynamic preaching style. He was known to preach mostly outside and in the streets.
“An Anglican minister who re-popularized itinerant evangelistic sermons, even when preaching outside the confines of a church structure. He was John Wesley's forerunner (and Wesley's student) - breaking ground and planting seeds that Wesley harvested and gathered into the Methodist Church.” [6] Although Franklin differed in his religious views, he liked the social role that religion played. It also supported societies moral fabric. Franklin printed Whitefield’s sermons that precipitated the great Evangelical Awakening. Evangelicalism was fundamentalist in its theology, but desired to be socially engaged. [7]
The theology of men like John Wesley chose Arminianism over predestination. He believed that Salvation came through good works. By 1830, Methodism became one of the more popular denominations in our country. Jonathan Edwards spoke against Arminianism and continued to promote the Calvinist idea of Salvation that it comes through inner reflection and God’s grace.
The fire and brimstone preaching style of the Puritans continued, but the Protestants opened themselves up to all that wanted to become Christians with a more welcoming and heartfelt presence. Calvinism became upgraded so that new converts could be saved and the evangelicals could move the message forward to the Presbyterians, Baptists and Methodists. The evangelical was defined as being the bearer of good news.
These new faiths became more egalitarian and democratic. They wanted no part in the structures of the Catholic churches in England or even the overly formal Puritan congregations. The preference for the Americans became the tent revivals. Multitudes of people shared they were having born again experiences much akin to the regeneration the Puritans had. Christianity had come a long way from the time that Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door at Wittenberg, Germany back in 1517.
More denominations grew in the early 19th century such as the Pentecostals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Disciples of Christ, Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day-Saints, and the Puritans Old Congregational Church. This new wave of awakening brought back the evangelical faiths that were first introduced in the 18th century. This growth reflected the religious freedoms James Madison and Jefferson constituted in the First Amendment. Congress was expressly forbidden to prohibit the free right for anyone to restrict religious freedom. The non-Christian Jefferson and the Baptists had an unlikely allegiance. The Baptists were so thankful for Jefferson that they sent him a gigantic case of cheese that weighed over 1,000 pounds. Because Jefferson had directly instituted the First Amendment, it helped religious organizations like the Baptists have a legal right and protection in any region in America where they would have otherwise been outlawed.
“What one chooses to believe or not believe about God, profoundly shapes what we believe about the nature of a person and his purpose in our society. The more we take out God from our public life, the more we remove the moral vocabulary that gives our public institutions meaning. The more secularized we become, the more we undermine the
common good and the more we feed the problems that are hurting us as a nation.” [8]
Today, the much-debated church-state issues are still part of the culture wars that are waged between the right place of religion in public schools. Some argue that any inclusion of religion in schools is a violation of the First Amendment and that the two should be separate. Some churches want to break down the church and state barrier because the argument is that the Constitution doesn’t state that.
It is ironic that the much-debated church and state issue enabled religion to instill politics more so than other countries. While all philosophies, ideas and denominations would flourish or perish, the government states that after the 14th Amendment, taxes were not collected or were any denominations outlawed. Theologies were allowed to flourish and uncensored religion was used to argue either side of a political debate. While Christianity was the primary ideology behind slavery and abolition, liberals and conservatives used Christian principles to argue both sides of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal in the early 1930s. While Jesus favors the poor in the Social Gospel, God rewards the rich in the Prosperity Gospel. A man by the name of James Monroe pointed out that evangelicals today are not to cast a vote for a democrat because that would be going against God. In some of the Western countries that are more religious than America, like Ireland and Croatia, there isn’t any connection between religion and politics. A true fact comes to light that moral values aren’t compatible with a side-to-side political power, compromise or usefulness.
Conclusion
While Enlightenment philosophers and evangelicals have faith, there are differing factors. Evangelicals emphasize faith in the Word of God while Enlightenment philosophers put their faith in science and God’s nature. Secular advancement and natural theologians bridged the gap between them. The Evangelicals brought a significant challenge to abolish slavery than the Enlightenment philosophers did. Most Evangelicals didn’t challenge slavery until the 18th century.
Both Evangelicals and Enlightenment philosophers demanded religious freedom and shared their dislike for politicians or religious leaders who felt they were superior by divine appointment. Both parties refused to accept that a king should have the right to rule over the American colonies.
An interesting phrase came out of the beginning of the American colony and that was mentioned by a historian named Nathan Hatch who said that America had democratized Christianity with the premise that politics had democratized the way for the growth and ushering in of the various denominations. Although the Enlightenment philosophers had a different take on reason and faith, the Evangelicals reinforced the other as if they were twins, streaming into the American Revolution. Evangelicals and Enlightenment philosophers understood the motto Jefferson and Franklin suggested. If one was rebellious to a tyrant, he must be obedient to God.
References
[1]. Woodbridge, John, and Frank A. James, III. (2013). Church History, Volume Two: From Pre-Reformation to the Present Day: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and political (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. [2]. Ibid.
[3]. Schmidt, J. The Legacy of the Enlightenment. Philosophy and Literature; October 2002, 2, 2, Religion Database, pg. 432.
[4]. Locke, J. Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture: Religious Intolerance and Arguments for Religious Toleration in Early Modern and Early Enlightenment Europe. Church History; Santa Rosa 76.3 (Sept 2007) 639-641. [5]. Smith, J.E. Philosophy of History: The Re-enchantment of the World in the Age of the Enlightenment. Journal of the History of Philosophy; Jul 2004; 42, 3; Religion Database pg. 343. [6]. Jull, D. George Whitfield and the Great Awakening: A Pentecostal Perspective. Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies, 14 no 2 Jul 2011, p 256-271. [7]. HTH-511 Grand Canyon University. (2015) Lecture Notes, Topic 7.
[8]. Chaput, C. We Can’t Be Silent. First Things, 243 May 2014, p 17-19.